Hydrothermal Vents Early Life Theories

It is still unclear as to how life on Earth began. There are many competing theories out there ranging from the Panspermia Theory to the proven incorrect Primordial Soup experiments. One of the newest theories is that life began in hydrothermal vents. What Are Hydrothermal Vents? Hydrothermal vents are structures in the bottom of the ocean that have extreme conditions. There are extreme heat and extreme pressure in and around these vents. Since sunlight cannot reach to the depths of these structures, there had to be another energy source for early life that may have formed there. The current form of the vents contain chemicals that lend themselves to chemosynthesis—a way for organisms to create their own energy similar to photosynthesis that uses chemicals instead of sunlight to make energy. The Severest of Conditions These types of organisms are extremophiles that can live in the severest of conditions. The hydrothermal vents are very hot, hence the word thermal in the name. They also tend to be acidic, which is usually harmful to life. However, life that lives in and near these vents have adaptations that make them able to live, and even thrive, in these harsh conditions. The Archaea Domain Archaea live and thrive in and near these vents. Since this Domain of life tends to be considered the most primitive of organisms, it is not a stretch to believe they were the first to populate the Earth. Conditions are just right in the hydrothermal vents to keep the Archaea alive and reproducing. With the amount of heat and pressure in these areas, along with the types of chemicals available, life can be created and changed relatively quickly. Scientists have also traced the DNA of all currently living organisms back to a common ancestor extremophile that would have been found in the hydrothermal vents. The species contained within the Archaea domain are also thought by scientists to be the precursors for eukaryotic organisms. DNA analysis of these extremophiles shows that these singled cell organisms are actually more similar to a eukaryotic cell and the Eukarya domain than the other single-celled organisms that make up the Bacteria domain. One Hypothesis Begins With Archaea One hypothesis about how life evolved begins with Archaea in the hydrothermal vents. Eventually, these types of single-celled organisms became colonial organisms. Over time, one of the larger unicellular organisms engulfed other single-celled organisms which then evolved to become organelles within the eukaryotic cell. Eukaryotic cells in multicellular organisms were then free to differentiate and perform specialized functions. This theory of how eukaryotes evolved from prokaryotes is called the endosymbiotic theory and was first proposed by American scientist Lynn Margulis. With a lot of data to back it up, including DNA analysis that links current organelles within eukaryotic cells to ancient prokaryotic cells, the Endosymbiotic Theory links the early life hypothesis of life beginning in hydrothermal vents on Earth with modern day multicellular organisms.

Presentation of Hamlet in Act 2 Scene 2 and 3 in William...

Presentation of Hamlet in Act 2 Scene 2 and 3 in William Shakespeares Hamlet It is hard to determine the intentions of William Shakespeare when he wrote Hamlet without looking at the social, historical and ethical context in which it was conceived. From the cover notes found within the Longman Literature edition, we can deduce that it is Shakespeares most well known play and, written during the year 1602, it was one of his later works. At this time, revenge was a very popular theme for plays and there is evidence if this in the vast number of plays about revenge that were written at the start of the seventeenth century. Throughout the play, Hamlet is shown as being a planner and this is†¦show more content†¦For example, Polonius would not have been killed because Hamlet would not have mistaken him for the king. Ophelia would not have committed suicide because Hamlet would have treated her better and Laertes would have no cause to fight Hamlet and lose his life in the process, and then Hamlet himself would have survived the tragic escapades found within the closing acts of the play. Hamlet can appear to be quite brutal and insensitive towards certain characters in the play, in particular, Ophelia, Polonius, Gertrude (his mother), Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. He does however, have a reason for his treatment of these people. In the case of the kings courtiers, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, they can be seen as plotting against Hamlet and being two faced in their treatment of him. There is evidence to support this in act three, scene three, when Guildenstern assures the king that We will our selves provide. Most holy and religious fear it is to keep those many bodies safe that live and feed on your majesty. This shows that they respect the king and understand it to be their religious duty to protect the general public from Hamlet. This is ironic, as Polonius will soon be dead to the sword of Hamlet. However, at the time that this play was written, revenge plays were very popular with audiences and playwrights alike and this would conceivably made theShow MoreRelatedWilliam Shakespeares Hamlet Essay2474 Words   |  10 PagesWilliam Shakespeares Hamlet When first introduced to Hamlet he is a character full of pain and confusion, still mourning his father’s death, ‘But two months dead-nay, not so much, not two’.[1] The punctuation here highlights Hamlet’s anguish. 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The playRead MoreStudy Guide Literary Terms7657 Words   |  31 Pages AP Literary and Rhetorical Terms 1. 2. alliteration- Used for poetic effect, a repetition of the initial sounds of several words in a group. The following line from Robert Frosts poem Acquainted with the Night provides us with an example of alliteration,: I have stood still and stopped the sound of feet. The repetition of the s sound creates a sense of quiet, reinforcing the meaning of the line 3. allegory – Where every aspect of a story is representative, usually symbolicRead MoreGoal Movie Review10720 Words   |  43 Pagesthis film in particular. They also got American Danny Stepper in on the venture. 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Driving at 16 Free Essays

In the state of Pennsylvania you can obtain a driver’s license at 16 years of age. There are a lot of disadvantages for teens driving at that age. Statistics and research show that their brains aren’t fully develop, they don’t have enough hours or time driving under the different weather conditions, they are more prone to having accidents, and their insurance rates are high. We will write a custom essay sample on Driving at 16 or any similar topic only for you Order Now You would think teenagers would be the world’s best drivers. Their muscles are supple and their reflexes are quick. Though car crashes are the leading cause of death more than drugs, guns, violence, or any disease. The National Institutes of Health conducted a research on brain immaturity of teenagers and how it can affect the driving and their judgment. The study shows that the region of the brain that inhibits risky behavior is not fully developed until about the age 25 which greatly impacts the nations driving laws. Here is a diagram showing how the brain matures from age 5 to 20. This just simply proves how teenagers and there lack of judgment and impulse can improve through maturity by age. Besides the maturity level of the brain of a teenager, another disadvantage is the hours driving under the wheel. They currently do not have enough hours and time driving under different weather climates to understand how that can affect maturity of their driving. In Pennsylvania, 16 year olds only have to drive for 50 hours and can obtain a junior license after 6 months of driving. So for an example you get your permit in April you can have your junior license in October. What about the winter months? That’s an important month because that’s deals with snow and ice factors. A third disadvantage for 16 year olds are accident rates are high. Teenagers are four times more likely than older drivers to be involved in a car crash and three times as likely to die in one, according to the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety. In 2008, PennDOT released an article on: Reminding Teen Drivers to Avoid Distractions While Driving. There was 23,059 crashes involving teenager driving and out of those crashes 194 fatalities. In 2009, Pennsylvania Crash Facts and Statistics show there were 22,473 crashes and 186 involving fatalities. Even though the percentage has gone down a little, that’s still way too many. Too many teenagers now a days talk and text while driving, continue to eat or drink, don’t wear seat belts, listening to loud music, goofing off with their friends, and have too many friends in the car. Then what happens is you lose focus on the road, the traffic around you, and causes you to have an accident. Which will affect your driving record and your insurance rate will go even higher. Which brings me to the final reason why driving at 16 has a disadvantage is the insurance rates are high. Teenage male drivers are 3 times a higher risk than teenage female drivers. A 78% statistic shows through Bureau of Highway Safety and Traffic Engineering and Pennsylvania Department of Transportation that more teenage males tend to have accidents. They also like to race each other in streets and tend to get more driving tickets. Even though taking the driving course through your school or driving class may help it still is a high rate. Plus teenagers are under their parents insurance until they reach 18. So if the parent has an excellent driving record and the teenager is careless or has an accident this than affects the parents. Which I think is unfair. It should affect the teen not the parent. Here are some solutions to all these disadvantages for a 16 year old having a driver’s license in the state of Pennsylvania. Right away I would raise the age to 17. I would than raise the hours of driving from 50 hours to 75 to start. I would also make it that instead of 6 months to obtaining a junior driver’s license; you would have 9 to 10 months until you can obtain one. That way you can be able to learn how to drive under all weather conditions. I also feel that teenagers should only be able to drive back and forth to work like a bread and butter license until you reach a certain number of hours and your driving record is clean. Change the time frame for allowing teenagers to drive. An example would be from 6 a. m. to 10 p. m. after that someone over the age of 18 would have to drive. The number of passenger’s in a car would be changed to only allowing 1 person under the age of 18 in a car. Since you would have to be 17 now to drive, I would also make it that you can obtain your own insurance policy. Or, if you or your parents want you under their policy it would only affect you if you get into an accident or get tickets. In some counties they have passed that you can’t text or talk on a phone while driving. They should pass this everywhere. This would all help reduce the accident rates and insurance rates. It is clear that if we could get some new laws passed or raise the age, this would resolve a lot statistics of teenage driving. In return they would be more mature and would make better choices and decisions. REFERENCES: The Washington Post (2005). The Developing Brain. Retrieved from http://washingtonpost. com DMV. org (2011 September 26). Pennsylvania Teen Drivers Guide. Retrieved from http://www. dmv. org PRNewswire (2011 September 26). PennDOT Reminds Teen Drivers to Avoid Distractions While Driving. Retrieved from http://www. prnewswire. com PennDOT (2009). Pennsylvania Crash Facts and Statistics. Retrieved from http://www. dot. state. pa. us The Daily Local (2011). Maturity Level of the Brain. Retrieved from http://www. dailylocal. com How to cite Driving at 16, Papers

Legal System and Legal Research in the Republic of South

Question: Describe about tribunal to observe a case and summarise the case together with the decisions of the panel. Outline the strengths and weaknesses of tribunals in the UK (visitors badge or attendance certificate from the tribunal need be attached as evidence). Answer: Introduction The tribunals in the United Kingdom are basically a part of the national system of the administrative department, but are being classified as the non-departmental public bodies. It was being formed under the circumstances of having a minority class in the judicial system on an ad hoc basis. Since 2007, there have been discussions as well, with the help of which the departmental changes are being made in order to make sure that this particular biased system can be avoided on the grounds having an effective scenario for these people in the country. The discussions are being made by the senior vice president of the tribunal group in order to have an effective scenario for them in the long run. The tribunal have been engaging itself in the activities that are actually leading for the benefits to this group of people. It was only in the year 2007, when the government of UK had passed an act for the purpose of legally accepting people from this group as members of the judiciary system in the United Kingdom. The Tribunals, courts and enforcement acts has been the laying down the principles of accepting this group of people as the member of judiciary in UK. According to this act, the tribunals were basically divided in certain groups that would determine most of the scenarios as per the requirements and the needs of these people. This step taken by the government of UK had led this group of people to make sure that even they can take an active participation in order to bring their class of people as a necessary aspect to set the demand for the whole economy together. Hence, it can be said that in most of the scenarios, it becomes an important aspect for the government of UK to make sure that Tribunals are included in the decision making process of the government. (Improvement Of The Resolution Of Sen sory Panels, 2016) Summary of the Case There have been lots of cases where the people in UK have gone against the system, disrespecting the existence of Tribunals. One of such cases has been the case between Ms William and MOD. These tribunals have been facing a difficult time in order to be the member of the judiciary to make sure that no disrespectful decisions has been taken. In this case as well there has been a situation where the EAT had actually dismissed the appeal of the claimant leading to an issue where the tribunal act had come in to existence. It is basically an appeal against the decision of the case, by the ET as it did not have any jurisdictions to basically hear the complained of the victimized. Therefore, it can be said that the equality act was not being followed for the people of this class. For this reason, it became an important factor for these people to come up with the scenario to make sure that they get equal rights in order to have a say in the decisions as taken by the higher authority. In most of the scenarios, it is the tribunal class people who are being suffering from these issues. The major reason behind the same has been the conflict in which these people are actually involved with or against the society. Apart from this, there have been situations where the in spite of having known the fact that a person from this group is actually on the favourable side, yet making a biased decisions, many a times the judge does not rule the case in favour of the tribunals as there has been no law regarding the matter to be judged and especially in the cases when these people are involved. The panel had not actually given a decision which would satisfy the people involved with the same. The major reason for the same has been the fact that the tribunals were not treated effectively in the case as it had led the people to make sure that they are being negatively responded towards the whole scenario. The observation has been according to the fact that the decision was biased enough for the people to come to the conclusion that the whole scenario was not in favour of the people from tribunal. Strengths of tribunals The existence of tribunals has been very much in the favour of them due to some of the major reasons. For the most important thing, i.e. the matters related to the court, tribunals do not have to wait for any kind of a court date in order to come to the conclusion. The decision taken will be less time consuming and the people involved with the same will be able to make sure that they are being able to put their views and arguments in the most effective manner. It can be regarded as one of the most important strengths for the tribunals as it would lead them to have an effective scenario for the betterment of their own society.(Text of IBM-Hitachi agreement establishing dispute resolution panel, 1983) Not only this, as the involvement of the court would not be there, the expenses to come on to a decision would not be expensive enough for the people to bear. The major reason for this is the fact that presence of court would actually lead to the whole scenario to get a reduction in the cost to nil. Therefore, it can be said that in most of the cases, the cost related to the same would not be incurred and hence for this reason this can be considered as one of the major strengths of tribunals.(Findlaw, 2016) It is simple and cost effective both as there are no complications as such to follow certain rules and regulations. It is simple as it does not involve any form of complications as there are no complications of the rules and regulations which are to be followed by the court to come to a conclusion for the claimant. This simplicity and cost effective aspect leads to the fact of having an effective scenario. Weaknesses of Tribunals The absence of rules and regulations doesnt mean that there is no law which is to be followed. There are certain laws, which are quite ineffective in nature. The rules and regulation has been complex because of which the ineffectiveness can be observed. Apart from this as well, there should be evidence enough for people to produce in front of the authority to make an appeal or something to prove their respective points. Hence, this can be considered as one of the weaknesses of the tribunals. This weakness of the tribunals would lead them to make sure that they have to produce proper evidences in order to decide all the necessary aspects. (Jurisdiction of Choice, 2016) Imbalance of power is also considered to be as a weakness ad it is an important aspect to determine who is going to determine all these facets of the case. The rules and regulations as made by the society of tribunals are to be followed in making any sort of a decision. These are the basic weaknesses of the tribunals as it would help the people in the group to make sure that the whole scenario is effectively used and no biased decisions has been taken or executed for the betterment of their respective society. (Brooker and Lavers, 1997) Importance of alternative dispute resolution system The dispute resolution system has been effectively utilised by the government of UK as in the presence of this system, all the groups which are not the respective member of the judiciary. In this scenario the alternative dispute resolution system is effectively utilised. This alternative dispute resolution system has been one of the major reasons for the court of law to determine any particular cases in the presence of which the company can actually lead to an effective rules and regulations. (cps.gov.uk, 2016) There are scenarios where the court is not being able to come to a conclusion for a group, where the normal laws cannot be applied. Apart from this, the whole scenario is to be actually modified as per the need of the group. Therefore, these aspects are actually dealt with the needful laws and regulations as per the effective processes to make sure that there is no biases aspect from the court of law. Hence, it should be that with the presence of having the best alternative dispute resolution system, the UK government has been taking an active role in the determination of the same. This alternative dispute system also has certain rules and regulations which are being effectively utilized for the purpose of having the most effective scenario for the groups which are not being considered as the member of the judiciary system of the country. Other than that most of the scenarios in these cases have been effectively utilized for the betterment of the tribunal group.. (Nyulawglobal, 2016) Types of alternative dispute resolutions available There have been different types of dispute resolution system available to the government of UK. It is because of this variety of the system, the tribunals are being able to get the justice in the matters where it becomes difficult for them to actually gain the same. Hence for this reason most of the times, the necessary decisions are taken by the society and the government together. For this particular reason, the UK government has come up with the concept of having alternative dispute resolutions as well, in place of the usual course of law. In this regard, the excessive decisions of the court of law are to be executed only when the whole matter is actually concluded that it is of a group where the court of law had decided for a fact that the normal laws would not be applied on them. Therefore the existence of having an alternative dispute system leads the economy to have rules and regulation for almost all the classes of people.(Study.com, 2016) Hence, it can be said that once the economy had decided to issue a new law for a group which is different from that of the normal citizens of the country, these alternative aspects are introduced. Hence, it can be said that these different types of dispute resolution system plays an important role in the determination of law which would effectively initiate the problem solving matters of the different groups in UK. References An Overview of the Legal System and Legal Research in the Republic of South Sudan - GlobaLex. 2016.An Overview of the Legal System and Legal Research in the Republic of South Sudan - GlobaLex. [ONLINE] Available at:https://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/South_Sudan.html. [Accessed 25 March 2016]. Brooker, P. and Lavers, A. (1997). Perceptions of alternative dispute resolution as constraints upon its use in the UK construction industry.Construction Management and Economics, 15(6), pp.519-526. Cps.gov.uk. (2016).Restorative Justice: Legal Guidance: The Crown Prosecution Service. [online] Available at: https://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/p_to_r/restorative_justice/ [Accessed 25 Mar. 2016]. Dispute Resolution. (1989).Anthropology News, 30(4), pp.23-23. England And Wales, Jurisdication Of Choice". N.p., 2016. Web. 25 Mar. 2016. Findlaw. (2016).Glossary: Courts and the Law - FindLaw. [online] Available at: https://litigation.findlaw.com/legal-system/glossary-courts-and-the-law.html [Accessed 25 Mar. 2016]. "Improvement Of The Resolution Of Sensory Panels".Journal of the American Society of Brewing Chemists(2016): n. pag. Web. Judiciary.gov.uk. (2016).Tribunal. [online] Available at: https://www.judiciary.gov.uk/about-the-judiciary/the-justice-system/jurisdictions/tribunal-jurisdiction/ [Accessed 25 Mar. 2016]. The Court System: Trial, Appellate Supreme Court - Video Lesson Transcript | Study.com. 2016.The Court System: Trial, Appellate Supreme Court - Video Lesson Transcript | Study.com. [ONLINE] Available at:https://study.com/academy/lesson/the-court-system-trial-appellate-supreme-court.html. [Accessed 25 March 2016]. Text of IBM-Hitachi agreement establishing dispute resolution panel. (1983).Alternatives to the High Cost of Litigation, 1(12), pp.3-31.

Lab Report Respiration Essay Example

Lab Report Respiration Paper After this period of exercise the same individual squeezed the litheness as many times as possible within one minute and the results were recorded. At least 10 minutes later, a second trial was completed using the same exact steps, also recording data. These steps were done with 4 subjects separately. In this experiment the independent variable was the prior exercise and the dependent variable was the amount of times the clothespin was squeezed. The constants in this experiment included the amount of exercise, the time allotted to each individual to squeeze the clothespin and similar clothespins. Results: Graph 1 This graph shows the differences in averages of the number of times the clothespin was squeezed with and without prior exercise. Table 1 This table shows the data collected from each individual person. The data includes two trials of squeezing the clothespin in a minute without prior exercise and two trials of squeezing the clothespin with prior exercise. The data shows that, on average, the individuals were able to squeeze the clothespin more exercise with prior exercise. Discussion: The data directly supports the hypothesis. With a small margin of error it is fair o state that, in fact, prior exercise increases the number of times individuals can squeeze a clothespin, on average. Both the averages and the sub-averages of squeezing the clothespin with prior exercise were greater than those without prior exercise. This is a valid conclusion because when individuals exercise their blood pumps more. This causes a larger circulation of oxygen and nutrients. Thus, with more nutrients and oxygen circulating through the working body cells of the finger, it will take less time for the body cells in the finger to tire out, as hey may have done without prior exercise. We will write a custom essay sample on Lab Report Respiration specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Lab Report Respiration specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Lab Report Respiration specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Suggestions for improvement: Despite being a superficially simple experiment, there were many potential sources of error present in conducting the experiment. The largest and most prevalent source of error was the counting of how many times the clothespin was squeezed in a minute. Even with the help of other group members, it was very difficult to count the number of times the clothespin was squeezed especially because it was averaging around 250 squeezes in a minute. Also as the clothespin was used more and more, it became worn down and perhaps became easier to squeeze, thus resulting in more squeezes after exercise. Some other confounding variables included the amount of exercise. If one of the individuals exercised with more determination or even with more force, it would be more likely to get their heart rate higher. Also some individuals may have eaten more energy efficient food and had gained more energy than other individuals. Another significant variable was the kind of exercise. If the type of exercise involved any of the muscles used in squeezing the clothespin, then it would be extremely detrimental to the results of the experiment. The goal of the exercise is not to tire out the muscles but rather to get the heart rate up. In a controlled laboratory there are several ways to prevent these errors and confounding variables. In order to count the clothespin squeezes accurately, one may attach a high tech counting device. This would greatly improve results. Also if there were a controlled exercise that involved none of the muscles used in the experiment it would eliminate several errors and confounding variables. Also to decrease error verbal, increasing sample size would have a substantial effect. Suggestions for further research: During this experiment several questions were left unanswered and provided suggestions for further research. One of these questions was if increased squeezing of the clothespin was correlated with an increase in heart rate in general. To test this one would have to test different ways of getting someones heart rate up such as exercise, scaring, and making them nervous, then make sure that the heart rates are the same, and finally test if the increased heart rate verbal allows that individual to squeeze the clothespin more, or if it is just after exercise. Another question that was left unanswered was whether a repetition of squeezing the clothespin over a series of months causes the individual to squeeze the clothespin more. To test this one would have to have a large amount of people squeeze clothespins for an allotted time every day for a month, or so. Then the tester would collect all the data and see whether there was an increase in the number of times the individuals were able to squeeze the clothespin within the allotted time.

Higgins Philosophy Essays - Pygmalion, English-language Films

Higgins Philosophy Essays - Pygmalion, English-language Films Higgins' Philosophy Professor Higgins is seen throughout Pygmalion as a very rude man. While one may expect a well educated man, such as Higgins, to be a gentleman, he is far from it. Higgins believes that how you treated someone is not important, as long as you treat everyone equally. The great secret, Eliza, is not having bad manners or good manners or any other particular sort of manners, but having the same manner for all human souls: in short, behaving as if you were in Heaven, where there are no third-class carriages, and one soul is as good as another. -Higgins, Act V Pygmalion. Higgins presents this theory to Eliza, in hope of justifying his treatment of her. This theory would be fine IF Higgins himself lived by it. Henry Higgins, however, lives by a variety of variations of this philosophy. It is easily seen how Higgins follows this theory. He is consistently rude towards Eliza, Mrs. Pearce, and his mother. His manner is the same to each of them, in accordance to his philosophy. However the Higgins we see at the parties and in good times with Pickering is well mannered. This apparent discrepancy between Higgins' actions and his word, may not exist, depending on the interpretation of this theory. There are two possible translations of Higgins' philosophy. It can be viewed as treating everyone the same all of the time or treating everyone equally at a particular time. It is obvious that Higgins does not treat everyone equally all of the time, as witnessed by his actions when he is in "one of his states" (as Mrs. Higgins' parlor maid calls it). The Higgins that we see in Mrs. Higgins' parlor is not the same Higgins we see at the parties. When in "the state" Henry Higgins wanders aimlessly around the parlor, irrationally moving from chair to chair, highly unlike the calm Professor Higgins we see at the ball. Higgins does not believe that a person should have the same manner towards everyone all of the time, but that a person should treat everyone equally at a given time (or in a certain situation). When he is in "one of those states" his manner is the same towards everyone; he is equally rude and disrespectful to all. Yet when minding his manners, as he does at the parties, he can be a gentleman. If the second meaning of Higgins' theory, that he treats everyone equally at a particular time, is taken as his philosophy, there is one major flaw. Higgins never respects Eliza, no matter who is around. In Act V of Pygmalion, Eliza confronts him about his manner towards her. "He (Pickering) treats a flower girl as duchess." Higgins, replying to Eliza, "And I treat a duchess as a flower girl." In an attempt to justify this Higgins replies "The question is not whether I treat you rudely, but whether you ever heard me treat anyone else better." Eliza does not answer this question but the reader knows that Higgins has treated others better than Eliza. At the parties, for example, Higgins is a gentleman to the hosts and other guest, but still treats Eliza as his "experiment." Higgins could never see the "new" Eliza. Higgins only saw the dirty flower girl that had become his "experiment." Much like an author never sees a work as finished, Higgins could not view Eliza lady or duchess. Since Higgins knew where Eliza came from it was difficult for him to make her parts fit together as a masterpiece that he respected. Part of Higgins' problem in recognizing the "new" Eliza is his immaturity. He does not see her as what she is, he only sees her as what she was. This immaturity is representative of Higgins' childish tendencies that the reader can see throughout the play. Higgins' child-like actions can partially explain the variations in his philosophy. Try to imagine Higgins as a young teenager. A young Higgins, or any teenage boy for that matter, has a very limited outlook. They treat everyone the same; depending on the situation they may be little gentlemen or rude dudes. When around parents the teenager is rude and inconsiderate yet when among his friends he a complete gentleman. The adult Higgins' actions are the same as the child.

New kingdom egyptian pharaohs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

New kingdom egyptian pharaohs - Essay Example As in ancient Egypt, the Pharaohs in the new kingdom, were at the top of social and political order, including control over military occupations. In addition, they helped maintain divine order in the world (PBS, n.d.). While Tutankhamun reopened the temples of Amun, Ahmose ended the war, which was begun by his grandfather, Tao II. Ahmose pampered the local administrators with gifts of land and entrusted them with the responsibility of daily rule of his country. In the earlier dynasties, also the provincial leaders gained too much power because they had land and they were allowed freedom by the Pharaohs (Phouka, n.d.). With the support of the military, he maintained the balance of power (DiPaolo, 1997). In the new kingdom, although people were educated and professionals could be found, peasants and servants remained at the bottom of the hierarchy as in ancient Egypt. Women remained confined to the house and taking care of the children (PBS). Queen Hapshepsut and Thutmose III turned Eg ypt into ancient super power (Millmore). Amenhotep III, like the kings of the ancient Egypt, built temples and statues, but he encouraged realism in art. He and his son brought about changes in the cultural identity of the people during their reign. While most royal marriages have a political motive, Amenhotep III’s marriage had none. He maintained balance of power through democracy. His son Akhenaten tried to introduce the concept of godhead, which was both monotheistic and abstract. The portraits and paintings were revolutionary and allowed creative freedom. They displayed beauty and decay in real people rather than flatter the king and his family as in ancient Egypt (Millmore, 1997). The New Kingdom Pharaohs established colonial settlements only at Tombos and the temple town of Kawa. These were not completely Egyptian sites as the local elites were allowed cultural and political autonomy provided the precious luxury goods reached the Pharaohs

Human Resource Organizational Development in a Company Research Paper

Human Resource Organizational Development in a Company - Research Paper Example olo Machiavelli once said that â€Å"There is nothing more difficult to carry out, nor more doubtful of success, nor more dangerous to handle, than to initiate a new order of things† (Hitt, 1988, p. 20). This paper therefore is a discussion of the essential elements in implementing organizational change, the role of the human resource during change, and a brief on the factors that brings change. Organizational development (OD) is about a long-term change that involves either the entire system or a sub-system of an organization towards more productivity. It necessitates dealing with culture and learning and of change agents internally and externally. The OD is a â€Å"change management strategy† known to be based on behavioral sciences that looks into the purposes and roles of the people and the organization for a better efficiency and productivity using â€Å"human and social processes† (Wamwangi, 2003, p.2). The OD practice develops â€Å"continuing capacity for learning and deepening understanding through practice† (Polotan-dela Cruz, 2008, p.4) Since 1950s, three change models have been known and applied by OD professionals in accordance to the development goal of the institution. One of the famous is Kurt Lewin’s change management model which concentrates on three developmental stages: unfreeze, change, and freeze. The unfreezing stage happens during organizational diagnosis when data shows discrepancies of organizational behavior or output desired versus what is currently exhibited (Cummings and Worley, 1993, p.53). Change stage is the process of introducing and developing the desired behavior while the freezing stage is the establishment of mechanisms like policies and new organizational structures to sustain the attained changes on behavior and attitudes. The other famous change model is the planning model by Lippitt, Watson, and Westley which approach is on the viewpoint of the external OD agent. This model with seven stages that includes scouting, entry,

DISTRIBUTION Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

DISTRIBUTION - Essay Example The distribution networks ensure efficient number count and accountability of the products in the firm. The customers are satisfied with the goods of high quality. The displays are made in such a way that furnitures, clothes, utensils and foods are arranged in different places. (Mark) On the other hand, Macy’s company generally deals with men, women and children’swears.It also deals with accessories, jewelry, furniture, home dà ©cor and utensils which are displayed at different places. The stock is not that much compared to Walmart.The brand name is also not well established as compared to Wal-Mart and therefore the customers have no loyalty to the shop. (Anonymous) The two companies source their goods from Germany, Japan and China. The companies buy goods in bulk so as to take the advantage of the economies of large scale. The goods are kept in their ware house and then they are distributed to the wholesalers and theirs shops for sale in retail. The companies have fleet of vehicles to facilitate this distribution of their goods to their destinations to save time.

E Commerce On Marketing Strategy Of Hotel Industry Marketing Essay

E Commerce On Marketing Strategy Of Hotel Industry Marketing Essay E-commerce is defined as the complete set of process that supports business activities in 1970s and 1980s; this would also have involved information analysis. The growth and acceptance of credit cards, automated teller machine (ATM) and telephone banking in 1980s were also forms of e commerce. The web first become well known among general public in 1994 and it took four years for security protocols (like HTTPS) to become sufficient developed and widely deployed. E commerce starts its relations with hotel in twenty first century, which was very different and complex than before. This way of business attract the hotel also for upgrading their business and here the marketing strategies of hotel industry become changed. Direct link with the customers through e commerce gave ideas to the hotel industry to change the customers expectations like when, how they want their needs and what is the budget of the customers for their product (rooms). The usual expectation of the hotels is that e co mmerce promotes friction-free-capitalism (CF. [Gates 1995]), with distribution cost reduced. It is easy to see that how this can happen, as the older communication system such as the post office, telegraph, telephone and the fax have all served but the cheapest, easiest, and time reduction way for the hotel revenue is e commerce. Many hotels have registration and payment done online. By the e commerce a customer can select the hotel, days and type of rooms from those automatically listed as available. Also hotels can order their supplies from companies that have e commerce services available. It also help the customers to choose their needs without thinking of time duration weather it is day or night at anytime. (www.school-for-champions.com) Although we all would likely agree that a balanced distribution strategy, which leverages both direct and indirect channels, including third-party sites and the GDS, is the best solution to optimize hotel revenue, if we will focus on the advantages of direct distribution. Specifically, we will look at how direct distribution is empowering hotels like never before to drive demand, generate profitable business, and maximize ROI for owners, regardless of the affiliation they may choose. Here is just one example of the power of the Internet to level the playing field across hotels of all types. What do the Royal Crown, Sofitel Brussels, Hotel Amigo and Hotel Metro pole have in common? They are luxury properties. They are located here in Brussels. They have different brand promises to their guests. They include an independent, a branded property, and representation company hotel. What they all have in common is that each of these hotels is placed on page 1 of Googles search results when s earching for Brussels luxury hotel. They are on the first page of a popular European OTA, Lastminute.com. And they are listed as a preferred placement on the GDS. (www.hospitalitynet.org) So, the Internet is an equalizer. Hotels can compete at previously unattainable levels. Now, no matter what the distribution strategy or marketing affiliation, hotels can compete effectively across all distribution channels. What this new playing field has done is give control for all channels of distribution back to hotels. In the excitement over the Internet as a new distribution tool, hotels unintentionally relinquished too much control of their bookings to third parties. With direct distribution, hotels can take back control of their pricing, their brand identity, their promise to guests, and their relationship with the customer. Most importantly, direct distribution allows hotels to take back control of profitability. To understand where the marketing strategy is leading in hotel industry by e commerce there is an example. In yesterdays model, hotels entrusted others to do their bookings. In Europes fragmented hotel industry there is not any coordinated effort for its distribution. Here, the mostly independent and small hotels are less than 30 percent represented in the Global Distribution Systems. The travel agents and tour operators were the lifeline to most hotels. In this model, the consumer had to use the travel agent and tour operators access to hotel information to make informed decisions, as there was little information available directly to the consumers. For those that did decide to expand their reach through electronic distribution systems, the Global Distribution Systems were the only alternative. In this model, the Brands provided the much-needed visibility. It gave hotels an identity, a way to be recognized. For the consumer, the Brand delivered a level of comfort. It was a pledge to the customer to deliver THE SAME as they traveled to unfamiliar territory. There were no travel- blogs or other review sites. In yesterdays model, the stars system was THE hotel review system that proved the level of Quality. Some hotels did see the Web as an opportunity to present their selves online, displaying information pages about their hotel, more like an online brochure than an e-commerce site. This while some Travel agents did embrace e-commerce and ingeniously moved their models online with dramatically increased inventories, promising mass volume, but at the cost of profitability for hotels. (www.hospitalityebusiness.com) Things are changing as it is mentioned before and it is crucial for hotels to stay abreast of the market. If they dont, their long-term success might be jeopardized by increasing and intensified competition. Hotels who do not diversify by leveraging the multiple channels can find themselves in situations that parallel the 70s in Spain, where tour operators dictated the room rates. The Center for Regional and Tourism Research reported that in Europe online hotel room sales increased by as much as 34 percent from 2004 to 2005 and reached over 25 billion in Europe in 2005. A further increase of about 25 percent during 2006 is expected. 120 million consumers are online across Germany, the UK, Italy, France, and Spain, according to Forrester Research. Broadband has become widely available, and prices have dropped dramatically. Phocus Wright statistics released last days predict that almost 40% of hotel booking in Europe will be booked online by 2008. Forrester, also points out that TWO of the TOP THREE most popular online activities for all users are travel related-researching hotel for holiday destinations and preparing booking online. (www.hospitalitynet.org) These changes cannot be ignored. Consumer behavior is changing and hotels need to adapt their relationships to reflect these changes, or be left behind. If we will focus we can say the e-commerce does appear to be leveling the playing field, and its transparency seems to be dictating the need for new distribution models. Now Why would a hotel encourage its customers to buy via the intermediary for less when it means even less yield for them? The Intercontinental Hotel Group, who was among the first to implement Best Rate Guarantees, even went so far as to implement a code of conduct and certification program for partner intermediaries. The hotel group eventually withdrew its inventory from Expedia and Hotels.com. Not surprisingly, then, we see why many hotels are moving to a consistent online pricing policy a nd have made their own web site top priority. In 2005, European direct travel suppliers booked almost TWICE as much business as the intermediaries with 66% of travel sales. (www.hospitalitynet.org) The Internets capabilities have matured to the point that it really is changing the way they do business. And so a new direct distribution model has emerged. This change in the online marketplace is not only changing how consumers shop, it is influencing what they shop for. Lets see what this means to competition for a couple sample markets. In London, where all parties are growing, independent hotels have had a growth of 21.3 percent, leading to revenue growth of 19.2 percent-well above the market average. Independents have been able to increase their ADR by 2 percent year-over-year, which has allowed them to see increases in revenue of nearly 20 percent. Reservations also grew for this segment, illustrating that independents can command the high price for the business. Independent hotels are also making gains in Paris. Independents saw an increase in bookings of 12.7 percent, leading to revenue growth of almost 10 percent. They are also seeing some other interesting trends in the Paris market. Independent hotels are commanding a $100 premium on their ADR as compared to the branded hotels in this market. While independents have taken small increases year-over-year to maintain this high ADR, branded hotels maintained their year-over-year ADR and experienced a loss in bookings and revenue. This data, from Travel CLICKs pr oprietary database, shows that independents can in fact compete with the brands today. (www.hospitalityebusiness.com) Indeed hotels have many choices. The choice of direct or indirect distribution is often related to brand affiliation and many times they go hand in hand. It is a business decision whether to go independent or fly a brand flag a decision that includes distribution capability, marketing, management expertise, and more that all together translate into a ROI. Recently, The Righa Royale, The Greenbrier, Grand American, and Grand Bohemian Hotel are just a few of the hotels that have left brand affiliations to go solo. Now the de-branding phenomenon is making its way to Europe. For example, here in Brussels, the Royal Crown Hotel recently de-branded. A brand is the product of experiences and is much more than a name or a logo. A brand is a pledge to consumers to deliver consistency in an effort to meet expectations. (www.hospitalityebusiness.com) Franchise/management company fees do, however, represent one of the largest operating expenses for branded hotels. When we look at the average GDS fees, we come to a sample reservation cost of $25; the average OTA reservation cost is $33. And a direct booking through Web site will cost only $7.50 in this scenario. These high fees can be over 10% of room revenue, which is as significant as having a  ¼ share partner! (www.hospitalitynet.org) Again, we come to the same conclusion. With a level playing field, direct distribution will yield hotels higher profits than third-party bookings. In the new model, every customer counts. It should be no surprise that positive consumer reviews have helped increases sales on Amazon.com and eBay for years and now are doing the same for Travel city, Expedia, and Sheraton. Today there are Central Reservation Systems and enhanced web booking engines that help hotels merchandise and differentiate their properties. New content management solutions help manage and distribute rich digital content including photos, video, room plans, and other brand-defining elements that need consistency across all channels. Today channel management solutions can quickly and easily manage the ever-increasing number of channels including GDS and OTA Web sites through a single user interface. All this, together with real time market based Competitive Intelligence, makes hoteliers informed and in charge of their distribution. In fact, those who have taken control of their destiny are being rewarded with higher revenues. Now that everything is so connected there is consistent 2-way communication. A wealth of market intelligence enables hoteliers to make even more informed decisions on their distribution and marketing strategies. And CRM-like applications keep hotels in touch wi th their most important assets their customers. Another way of e-commerce is Search engine marketing, which is an essential component of the hotel direct online distribution strategy. Almost 85 percent of Internet users rely on search engines such as Google, Yahoo and MSN to locate relevant information on the Web. Marketing is an extremely dynamic field. Search algorithms change, new search techniques and formats are introduced, new search services are launched, and new challenges emerge daily those keep search marketers busy. The result of web traffic affects a lot on those hotels, which are on the first page. Approximately 50 percent of people on the first page went to the second page and so on. Which affects the hotel and its marketing strategy off course. So the conclusion drawn from above is that competing on the search engines by appearing as early and as often as possible is of increasing importance. How a Web site achieves top position is not simply an adjustment of the Web page, but a concerted effort that requires time, expertise, and resources in Web site optimization and search marketing. Now another mode of attraction for the customers are how the web page of the hotel is made up have like how attractive is it and how much is it easier for a customer to search any information related to their need? If we will see in past there is an example, which can make it easier to understand. In a highly competitive northern California market, a boutique hotel needed to outsmart its competition and boost ADRs, revenues and occupancy rates. Internet distribution and marketing strategy developed from scratch. Actions: HeBS launched an aggressive Direct Online Distribution and Marketing Strategy for the hotel, including an award winning des igned Web site, email marketing, search marketing and link popularity strategies. Results: Within 12 months the hotel opt-in e-mail list grew from practically zero to more than 10,000 recipients. The website ranks in top positions on all major search engines for most popular keyword terms. The hotel website, supported by powerful email, search marketing, link creation and online sponsorship campaigns has indeed become the first point of contact with customers and over 50% of hotel bookings come via the hotel website.( www.hospitalityimpact.com) Many hotel sites are performing poorly as far as online distribution and search engine strategy are concerned. Why? Many hotel sites have been developed by Web designers who know nothing about the hospitality industry, based on input and concepts by hoteliers who are not experts on Internet strategy, online distribution, and E-Marketing. And many of them were designed as online brochures without taking into account principles in fundamental search engine marketing and online distribution. Such hotel sites inevitably produce poor results and few bookings. Strong search engine rankings require systematic, ongoing Web site optimization. Only a fully optimized site developed according to the best practices in online distribution and marketing can produce robust revenues, top search engine rankings, and position your hotel company ahead of the competition. Website optimization takes a comprehensive look at the Web site and prepares it for its best performance maximum user experience, book ability and conversion rates and yes, the search engines.

The Character of Scarlet in Gone With the Wind Essay -- Gone With the

The Character of Scarlet in Gone With the Wind  Ã‚     "My Dear, I don't give a damn," (718) Rhett Butler says this infamous quote to Scarlet O'Hara at the end of Gone With the Wind (1934), when the woman has finally poured her soul to him. The novel Gone with the Wind (1934) by Margaret Mitchell is a classic about the hard times suffered during and after the Civil War. Scarlet lives in the Confederacy and everyone there is for fighting for his or her noble Cause. The young southern belle Scarlet O'Hara is forced to do things she never thought a girl of her class and nature would have to do. All throughout the novel, she is faced with serious problems. Scarlet plainly states, I'll not think of that today, I'll think of it tomorrow, for tomorrow is another day, which of course she never does. It is this thought however, that makes her character stay strong, although sometimes living in a daydream. Without telling herself this, Scarlet would have broken down in the very beginning after the war had started. Scarlet lives for the future and not the past. It's this about her that makes her character admirable and noble At first the reader would think Scarlet's character is snobbish and helpless. Through her determination, she forces others to change their opinion of her. In the beginning, she is a young, beautiful sixteen -year old, with a seventeen-inch waist, the smallest in the county. At parties, she never has less than a dozen young men surrounding her, all of whom she never lets know whom she truly loves. The other girls find Scarlet heartless, the way she leads all those boys on, but Scarlet pays no mind to them. She knows they are just bitter with jealousy. She does truly love Ashley Wilkes, but he is to announce his enga... ...d a cause of her own. While many characters in the book fought and died for the great Cause, she cared more about her own. Scarlet had to care for Tara and her family. Although many see her as repulsive, by looking at her acts, she made herself strong with words. The once young and carefree girl was forced to marry for money, not for love, twice. When Scarlet finally let her only true love in life, Rhett Butler, know how she felt about him, she realizes all too late how horrid she's acted, he finally puts Scarlet in her place by stating "My dear, I don't give a damn." At these words, Scarlet still does not break down. After all she has been through she knows what to do. She tells her self that tomorrow is another day, and tomorrow she will get Rhett back.   Works Cited Mitchell, Margaret. Gone With the Wind. NewYork: The Macmillan Company,1994      

Essay on The Department of Homeland security Essay

The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was established by this act of parliament: Homeland security Act of 2002. It was created to consolidate the US executive branch agencies linked to the security of the homeland, into a one cabinet department. It resulted into partnership of 22 agencies into one new and autonomous department. After the investigations of 9/11, the republican government under the presidency of George W. Bush came up with measures to solve the shortcomings of national security. Within a fort night after the terrorist attacks, George W. Bush announced the formation of the office of Homeland security developed to protect US territories from terrorist attacks and offer efficient and effective emergency and intelligence response to potential future natural disasters. The President signed Executive Order 13228 on October 8, 2001 setting up this office with the mission of developing and coordinating the implementation of a detailed national security strategy to prevent the United States from suffering another terrorist attacks The U.S. PATRIOT Act (Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism) is the most important law passed after the 9/11 attack. It is so essential because of the fact that it improves inter-agency cooperation for the collection of intelligence andit’s sharing. This barrier being broken down has contributed to a very large extent the protection of the US. Additionally, it appreciates the fact that the advent of technologyensures that our laws are updated and has encouraged better prosecution of suspected terrorists. Lastly, it has strengthened the existing terrorism legislations, reflecting some specific situations that did not exactly exist previously. These are the things that make the PATRIOT Act a great addition to law enforcement. The Homeland Security Act is the other important piece of legislation. The most vital element was the fact that the multi-crisis management agencies were clustered under one command structure and then given the mandate to work with law enforcement agencies with a nation-wide outlook, as specified in section 101 of the Homeland Security Act (2002). The Homeland Security presidential directives are powers exercised by the president to form a de facto order. While the general vision for homeland security is firmly etched with the Executive branch, the more the details that will fall to the legislative branch. In the period after 9/11, several key legislations were passed. The most important being the U.S. PATRIOT Act,  and the Homeland Security Act of 2002. Executive Orders have for a long time been a technique for a President to de facto come up with a law & further give the details on powers of the E xecutive branch. The 1st Presidential proclamation issued because of an internal issue was the suspension of the writ of habeas corpus by President Lincoln in 1861. This influential order would pave the way for subsequent Presidential actions with regard to terrorists, enemy combatants and saboteurs. The DHS was put under the leadership of Mr. Tom Ridge. Boarder-line security, antiterrorism, disaster preparedness, Immigration, response and recovery are some of the key areas DHS influences. The Department of Homeland Security brought in 22 law enforcement, security and intelligence agencies under one command. Immigration issues are core to the US internal security. In 2003, therefore the department took up the Immigration and Naturalization Service automatically assuming its duties. This action led to the separation of the service and information functions into 2 distinct agencies: Citizenship and Immigration and Immigration and Custom Enforcement services. United States. Homeland security strategy and policy from 2004 until now is marked by the establishment of strategiesformulated correct deficiencies on the general security position of the country. In total 5 new strategies were developed, they are: 1.The Strategy for Homeland Defense and Civil Support, June 2005 2.The National Strategy for Maritime Security, September 2005 3.The National Intelligence Strategy, October 2005 4.The National Counterintelligence Strategy, March 2007 5.The National Strategy for Aviation Security, March 2007 (2010) Each strategy lists objectives that can weigh the effectiveness of the purpose of existing weaknesses in each distinctivearea. As these are strategies, they have to beimplemented with success over the scope of the past 3 years. Two other bills were passed into law in this time period: The Intelligence Community and the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (IRTPA) and The Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act. The IRPTA matured into a law on December 17, 2004. Most of the recommendations made by the 9/11 Commission were included into this law, dropping the head of the Intelligence Community (IC) from the Director of Central Intelligence (DCI) to the Director of National Intelligence. The National Counter Terrorism  Center was founded. As a foundation for a counter terrorism activities, it brings together all intelligence gathered on terrorist activities & serves as a cleaning house for these matters. As one entity, it has made significant contributions to the successful defense of the nation.

Science Fair Idea and Abstract

Science Fair Idea and Abstract Abstract1. I am going to find out the different oxygen output and carbon dioxide output of multiple plants.2. The question I am going to solve is; " Which plant gives off the most oxygen, which plant takes in the most carbon dioxide and which plant is the best in both fields.3. I do not currently have a hypothesis.4. I will need a computer, a computer interface, an oxygen and a carbon dioxide sensor, a bottle, different type of plant leaves, a lamp, a shoebox and an X-Acto knife. I will get different types of leave and measure them by weight so I have the same amount of leaves for each repetition. First, I will create a chamber for the bottle to sit in. The shoebox should have a hole on top for a lamp to shine through and holes in the sides to connect the sensors.Bottling Hardware

101 Report and Small Change Professor Ramos Blog

101 Report and Small Change Chp 5, â€Å"And Yet† Quick Write What are questions or issues with diversity that would benefit from us researching them? Chp 5, â€Å"And Yet† Distinguishing What  You  Say from What  They  Say Chapter 5 (p. 68) introduces you to the term  voice markers  in order to help you distinguish the â€Å"I say† from the â€Å"They say.† This is a very important move since we are now including the â€Å"They say† in your writing. If you do not do this clearly, the reader will be confused as to your position and you may seem to contradict yourself. The templates help you with specific ways of signaling who is saying what, and to embed the voice markers. Being able to distinguish your own view from the common view is a â€Å"sophisticated rhetorical move.† Using â€Å"I† or â€Å"We† The chapter also covers using the first person in academic writing, â€Å"I† or â€Å"we.† You have likely been told to not or never use the I in college writing. The book argues that well-supported arguments are grounded in persuasive reasons and evidence, not in the use of nonuse of pronouns. Grossman â€Å"From Scroll to Screen† https://www.nytimes.com/svc/oembed/html/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2011%2F09%2F04%2Fbooks%2Freview%2Fthe-mechanic-muse-from-scroll-to-screen.html From Scroll to Screen by Lev Grossman  was first published in the New York Times. What is Grossman’s report about? What is his purpose? Does this sound like an argument or a thesis? How is he organizing the information? Gladwell â€Å"Small Change† Malcolm Gladwell â€Å"Small Change: Why the Revolution Will Not Be Tweeted† (399) Gladwell discusses the arguments promoting social media as a key component in social activism starting in paragraph 7. He says, â€Å"The new tools of social media have reinvented social activism. With Facebook and Twitter and the like, the traditional relationship between political authority and popular will has been upended, making it easier for the powerless to collaborate, coordinate, and give a voice to their concerns.† He discusses revolutions in Moldova and Iran and quotes a former senior State Department official who believes social media can be used to fight terrorism. He  brings up these opposing views (his â€Å"they say†) after an extended description of the Woolworth’s lunch counter sit-ins. He begins to refute these views in paragraph 8. 2/2/60 Greensboro, N.C.: A group of Negro students from North Carolina AT College, who were refused service at a luncheon counter reserved for white customers, staged a sit-down strike at the F.W. Woolworth store in Greensboro 2/2. Ronald Martin, Robert Patterson and Mark Martin are shown as they stayed seated throughout the day. The white woman at left came to the counter for lunch but decided not to sit down. Sit-in participants are bullied and have food and drinks dumped on them. Chp 6 Skeptics May Object Chapter 6 introduces a different sort of â€Å"they say†: the naysayer. The naysayer, or counterargument, appears after the conversation and after you have made some points. Including what the objections might be helps you make a more thorough point and adds credibility to the writing. Be careful to treat the objection carefully and fairly. Do not present a weak argument or a simplification of it because that can lead to a number of fallacies including the Strawman fallacy. The book offers suggestions for including the Naysayer or Skeptic. Anticipate Objections Entertain Objections in your own writing. Name the Naysayers. Introduce objections formally or informally Represent Objections Fairly Answer Objections Make concessions and stand your ground.

The Bible Among the Myths Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

The Bible Among the Myths - Research Paper Example There is only one God who is the creator of the universe is the Hebrew’s belief. In addition, they believed that God disclosed himself to people during their distinct encounters. Moreover, they presumed that God punishes and rewards mankind on the basis of obedience to his will in human conduct. Their faith came into question when the first Babylonian and Assyrian empires dominated the biggest part of Israel. The Israelites’ did not abandon their faith because they viewed the Babylonian and Assyrian conquest as a way of God’s punishment due to their unbelief. The Greeks differed from the Israelites because they believed that there is a connection between cause and effect. On the other hand, the Israelites were of the opinion that God plays a role in the events that happen physically. The author concludes by stating that science and logic are developed after individuals realize that the world is not God, and neither is God the world. He argues that logic and science cannot support themselves because they are not self-evident. God’s presence as a creator is experienced in the universe during the distinct occurrences in history of men that give the foundation for the idea of historical authority.1 In this chapter, the author seeks to find an appropriate meaning of the term myth. He is purposed to look for a correct answer if the Bible can refer to a myth or not. He asserts that the definition of the word myth can determine its application. John Oswalt says that it is crucial to comprehend why it is necessary to force the Bible into the group of myth in modern time. The author suggests that there are three definitions that can describe myth. To begin, the etymological definition of myth emphasize on the untruthfulness of the object being outlined. The meaning is on the basis of the word mythos that is interpreted in

Dossier regarding a recent russian contemporary affair Essay

Dossier regarding a recent russian contemporary affair - Essay Example The paper focused on the notion that sentencing was executed with a personal grudge from the president Putin himself and also revealed the picture of pro-â€Å"Pussy Riot† case. But it also reflected a bit of criticism of the case in an indirect manner supporting the convicted by stating that they have performed an act of hooliganism which further reflects the strictness of the Russian government in this case (Pussy Riot members jailed for two years for hooliganism, 2012). In the article â€Å"Anti-Putin Stunt Earns Punk Band Two Years in Jail† published in August 2012 on NY Times also criticized sentencing of the Pussy Riot Case and highlighted on the global reactions in favor of the case. Giving the instance of the performance of the band members and their subsequent conviction the report stated that it was a kind of forced sentencing on the alleged persons. The report also highlighted that the members of the band had no intentions of hurting the Orthodox sentiments b ut their performance was a symbol of protest against the third time election of Putin as the President through manipulation and loosening the attributes of democracy (Herszenhorn, 2012). The convicted were also not given proper flexibilities in defending themselves. In the article â€Å"History Repeated Itself as Farce in 2012† from Moscow times published in 7th January 2013 by journalist Roland Oliphant also reflects its sympathy for the members of Pussy and blames the Russian President as a move to curb down the opposition and also making its authority over the opposition and establishing anti democratic aura but the report also directs that western media have exaggerated the issue and the event can occur in the west as well (Oliphant, 2013). 3. Vladimir Putin and controversy Vladimir Putin in Russia after serving a term from 1999 to 2008 in Russia as the Prime Minister and President was also re elected as the President of Russia in 2012 (White, 2011, p.175). Although Russi a follows a pure democratic regime but the presidential election was not a favorable outcome for a large fraction of people in Russia. Huge constraints have come from the opposition political parties in Russia like that of People’s Freedom Party and Republic Party of Russia with the notion that Putin has manipulated the votes in his favor and have jeopardized the crux of democracy. On the eve of the Presidential election, there were military troops in the streets and there were more than hundred of arrests. One of the opposition leaders stated that, â€Å"If it was a free election, why have they flooded the entire city of troops? They fear us† (Stewart and Palmer, 2012). On the eve of Presidential election and his victory, Putin was found shading tears. The protestors criticized this action of the president by stating that this tear was seen for the first time in Putin’s eyes after gaining victory in the elections by a share of 64 per cent votes. Anti Putin camp aigner Ilya yashin stated that, ‘It is the first time within the last 12 years we saw the tears of the dictator’

Topic4 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Topic4 - Essay Example At first, Sam without mentioning details of how the launch was going to be made, merely quoted @$75 per head for 100 delegates and a venue fee of $ 2500 thus totaling the contract amount as $10,000. Dean was unimpressed and hence declined Sam's offer. It was only after this; Sam mentioned that a famous Chef Yahoo Nim would attend the event and that a special promotional invitation on Oh My Manor's letter head would be prepared and sent by Sam to the 100 delegates three weeks before launch date. Besides, he also promised to use his own influence to ensure attendance. Dean was apparently induced by these statements of Sam and agreed to Sam's price quoted following which he paid an advance $ 3,000 and received the receipt from Sam mentioning only the price and how total sum was arrived at. Hence successful performance of the contract means that the celebrity Chef Yahoo Nim should have prepared the food and attended the function, Sam should have sent the invitation as stipulated and 100 people should have attended by Sam's influence. But none of these happened resulting in poor attendance of 35 people since only 45 invitations were sent. These can not therefore be a mere parol evidence. These are express terms and hence should be taken as collateral contract though made orally. The collateral contract concept is a device to circumvent the Parol Evidence Rule but also as a means of holding that a statement which is not a term of the main contract can be enforced as a collateral contract i.e. collateral warranty. Some of the cases which can be cited in support of this are ESSO PETROLEUM V MARDEN (1976), DE LASALLE V GUILDFORD (1901), RECORD V BELL (1991) and COMMISSION FOR THE NEW TOWNS V COOPER (CA) (1995) (TheLawsite). Hence Sam is bound by these terms and is liable for damages for breach of contract. Dean is not required to pay the balance amount of $7,000 and he can proceed against Sam for damages for his breach of contract since pressure of work is no excuse. Qn 2 Zander mad it known to Puffy his exact requirements to which Puffy also agreed. Hence the software supplied by Puffy is not in accordance with the terms agreed upon prior to signing of contract Zander signed the contract only on being assured that the software would meet with all the current Government regulatory requirements. But for this he would not have signed the contract. But there is a point against Zander. What Puffy was making was only an opinion and not a condition or representation. She offered him three packages and Zander chose one. It was open to him to verify and then make a purchase. Even though before signing of the contract, Zander insisted, he chose the package at his own risk. If the software package had been a defective one, it would have been a different issue. Hence Puffy is in not breach of contract and consequently Zander is not entitled to refund of the money paid. Qn No 3 In this case, even though Zander did not read the clause No 53 which avoided any liability whatsoever, he is deemed to have read it due to the explicitly mentioned clause on the website. This is an exclusion clause binding on the acceptor. In its absence, the offeror would have been liable for the non-performance or defective performance. In

Energy Drinks Essay Example for Free

Energy Drinks Essay Introduction Sir Isaac Newton was right when he saidâ€Å"what goes up must come down† . This rings true when talking about energy drinks. These products promise to provide heightened awareness, more energy, more endurance some even reference to the consumer you will have wings. So when consuming these products what are you really drinking? Do they provide the energy boost they promise? Are they harmful? Should the FDA do more investigating into the safety of these so-called energy drinks? These are questions I had going into this as a consumer of energy drinks myself, I was interested in how harmful they are too the consumer. In this paper I hope to provide a better insight to a product that is popular and in demand; but little is known about. What Are You Drinking? Energy drinks contain most of the same major ingredients caffeine, taurine, glucronolactone, niacin and panax ginseng just to list a few. Let’s start with caffeine it is a central nervous system stimulant that has the effect of temporarily warding off drowsiness and restoring alertness. As of studies done by (Lovett, Richard) 90% of adults consume caffeine daily in different ways. Most of the energy from these drinks comes from the sugar and caffeine not the unnecessary extras (Suzanne Farrell MS, RD). Taurine another main ingredient is actually an amino acid that is found in the human body it is a natural substance that our bodily systems encounter every day. However in these energy drinks it is a synthetic element. Then there is Ginseng is known as an adaptogen, which means it increases resistance to physical, chemical, and biological stress and builds energy and general vitality. These are just a couple of the things in what seems to be in a lot of the energy drinks. The rest of the scientific sounding ingredients came up to be not relevant to the effects these drinks promise. |Beverage (250 ml) |Caffeine content | |Cocaine energy drink |280mg | |Full Throttle |144mg | |Monster |160mg | |Impulse |88 mg | |Red Bull |80 mg | |Naughty Boy |80mg | |V |78 mg | |Coca-Cola |48. 75 mg | Do These Drinks Provide The Effects They Promise? Most drinks provide some combination of B vitamins (which help convert sugar to energy and help regulate red blood cells, which deliver oxygen), amino acids (e. g. , taurine), antioxidants(milk thisle, vitamin C), and stimulants, ranging from the reliable (caffeine, guarana) to the alleged (horny goat weed). Yes, they do. Smit and colleagues found that energy drinks, as compared to placebo, had energizing effects among 18 to 55 year old participants, with effects being strongest 30 to 60 minutes after consumption and sustained at least 90 minutes. Caffeine was found to be the primary constituent responsible for these effects. Although there is no human requirement for caffeine, even low doses of caffeine (12. 5 to 100 mg) improve cognitive performance and mood (Smit HJ). Because this is still such an understudied topic it is hard to say that these drinks provide the effect they promise. The fact is caffeine affects everyone different due to age, size, tolerance, consumption and lack of sleep all these things contribute to how these drinks will affect you. Are They Harmful? This question was the one I was most interested in there is so much controversy around this question. Many energy drinks have a very high percentage of carbohydrates that can make it more difficult for food and nutrients to be absorbed into the bloodstream from the intestines. In some cases, gastrointestinal problems and distress are a possibility. When an energy drink has a high sugar content, it can have a laxative effect, as well as causing a sudden crash when the sugar leaves the bloodstream and the energy high disappears. Researchers found that within four hours of drinking various energy drinks, the 15 participants blood pressure rates increased approximately 10 percent for the systolic rate, 8 percent for the diastolic rate and heart rates increased 11 percent (Wayne state university study). When given to test rats in an experimental laboratory, it was found that the taurine caused anxiety, irritability, high sensitivity to noise, and self-mutilations. However, this data does not mean that the same effects will occur in humans the differences between rats and people are obviously substantial. That to me seems sort of scary. The Australian Consumers Association advises that while energy drinks may be scientifically safe, young people especially need to be aware of their contents. Research shows that children and young people who consume energy drinks may suffer sleep problems, bed-wetting and anxiety. Children who consume two or more cans of energy drinks a day may become irritable and anxious. Women who are pregnant are advised to avoid energy drinks (especially during the first three months of pregnancy), as high amounts of caffeine can increase the risk of miscarriage, difficult birth and delivery of low-weight babies. (Australian Consumers Association) Drinking these drinks while consuming alcohol can also be very harmful there have been reports of young people dying, possibly as a result of mixing of alcohol and energy drinks. Also Since the absorption of nutrients is slower; there is a large chance that the fluid absorption rate of the body is also slower. Difficulty in natural re-hydration of the body during workouts can cause danger to the person’s health. Athletes, who lose great quantities of fluids during games and practices, should be aware of this circumstance for they are one of the target markets of energy drinks. Should The FDA Do More Investigating As To The Safety Of Energy Drinks? Regulation of foods and drugs in the United States falls under the guidance of the Food and Drug Administration under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDCA). Functional foods, like energy drinks, may be regulated as foods, dietary supplements, drugs, medical foods or food for special dietary use. Though energy drinks have many of the same qualities as soft drinks, which are regulated as foods, they are regulated differently because the functional beverage industry is part of the trend of â€Å"nutraceutical foods† that occupies the gray area between food and dietary supplements. Dietary supplements are generally characterized as foods, despite their drug-like properties and their lack of testing on the market. The U. S. Food and Drug Administration have not conducted any serious investigations into the safety of energy drinks. As dietary supplements, energy drinks are subject to much less stringent regulations than other foodstuffs. However certain nations limit the locations that can sell energy drinks. Other countries require warning labels on individual cans of energy drinks. Still other countries have issued national statements regarding their safety. Some countries, such as Canada, have not yet approved certain energy drinks for sale. So shouldn’t the FDA take a closer look as to how these drinks are labeled and marketed and shouldn’t there be more investigating as to its effects on their consumer. Conclusion As a consumer of at least two if not more monster energy drinks a day I found the information was good to know. I do think that the FDA needs to make it where they do inform the consumer of the risks on the label especially because these drinks are very popular in teens. After all that I found I find it interesting that the public is so misinformed about all the ingredients in these drinks because really the caffeine is what is giving them the boost not all the scientific sounding ingredients. I think that it is most important for consumers to know that when taking in such high levels of caffeine you will go up but you must come down. Bibliography Lovett, Richard (24 September 2005). Coffee: The demon drink? (Fee required). New Scientist (2518). http://www. newscientist. com/article. ns? id=mg18725181. 700. Retrieved 2009-08-03. Suzanne Farrell, MS, RD, a spokeswoman for the American Dietetic Association. Webmd. com Smit HJ, Rogers PJ: Effects of low doses of caffeine on cognitive performance, mood and thirst in low and higher caffeine consumers. Psychopharmacology 2000, 152:167-173. William J. McGuire, the Communication-Persuasion Model and Health-Risk Labeling, in Product Labeling and Health Risks Bichler A, Swenson A, Harris MA: A combination of caffeine and taurine has no effect on short term memory but induces changes in heart rate and mean arterial blood pressure. Amino Acids 2006 http://www. naturalhealthontheweb. com Australian Drug Foundations Druginfo Clearinghouse. http://www. redbull. com/faq/index. html. http://www. safefoodonline. com/news/n_190302. asp. Monster energy [http://www. monsterenergy. com/product/energy. php www. fda. gov wellnessandnutrition. com edrinks. net Smit HJ, Rogers PJ: Effects of low doses of caffeine on cognitive performance, mood and thirst in low and higher caffeine consumers. Psychopharmacology 2000, 152:167-173. http://www. naturalhealthontheweb. com Australian Drug Foundations Druginfo Clearinghouse. http://www. redbull. com/faq/index. html. http://www. safefoodonline. com/news/n_190302. asp Monster energy [http://www. monsterenergy. com/product/energy. php] www. fda. gov.

Wordplay Functions In Literature And Literary Theory English Language Essay

Wordplay Functions In Literature And Literary Theory English Language Essay Abstract: Wordplay occupies a significant position in several important conceptions and theories of literature, principally because it has both a performative and a critical function in relation to language and cognition. This article describes the various uses and understandings of wordplay and their origins in its (Whose?) unique flexibility, which involves an interaction between a semiotic deficit and a semantic surplus. Furthermore, the article illustrates different methods of incorporating theories of wordplay into literature and literary theory, and finally, it demonstrates the ways in which the use of wordplay often leads to the use of metaphors and figurative language. Introduction Puns and wordplay occupy a significant position in literature as well as in various ways of reflecting on and conceptualizing literature. They can be used to produce and perform a poetic function with language and they can be used critically, which entails considering them from a distance(?) as utterances that undermine meaning and sense and that ultimately accomplish a deconstructive performance. A dictionary definition of the word pun illustrates that both homonymy (when two words with unrelated meanings have the same form) and polysemy (when one word form has two or more, related, meanings) can properly be used to form puns: a play on words, sometimes on different senses of the same word and sometimes on the similar sense or sound of different words (American Heritage College Dictionary 1997, Third Edition). However, this definition could also be extended to embrace the term wordplay, mainly because pun seems to cover only single words.  [1]  So a more precise definition of pu n might be a play on words, sometimes on different senses of the same expression and sometimes on the similar senses or sounds of different words (This is between inverted commas. Where is the citation?). The various uses and understandings of wordplay originate from a flexibility which this article attempts to identify and describe from both a historical and a contemporary perspective. Wordplay involves an interaction between a semiotic deficit and a semantic surplus and is therefore primarily understood and used in two different ways in literature and literary theory. Literary scholar Geoffrey Hartman succinctly articulated this interaction in an essay titled The Voice of the Shuttle: Language from the Point of View of Literature (1970) I dont know which system of citation the author is using. If it is APA, this citation is wrong: You can define a pun as two meanings competing for the same phonemic space or as one sound bringing forth semantic twins, but, however you look at it, its a crowded situation (1970: 347). The semiotic deficit is caused by one sign or expression signifying at least two meanings. The semantic surplus, on the other hand, refers to the cognitive event happenin g in the individual (in literature, the reader) experiencing the play on words. The article describes these two features of wordplay with the help of a few examples of wordplay in literature and literary theory, and it also demonstrates that the use of puns and wordplay often leads to the use of metaphor and figurative language or a semantic surplus like Hartmans twins. Furthermore, the article presents an argument for distinguishing between exploring the intention behind the use of wordplay and exploring wordplay itself. In the previous paragraph, the author talked about an essay by Hartman. Is he/she still referring to that essay when he/she talks about the article? Paranomasia and traductio In the beginning was the pun (1957: 65), writes Samuel Beckett in his novel Murphy from 1938 The citation is wrong, according to APA standards, but although puns and wordplay as such may have been with us from the very beginning (of what?) Beckett is paraphrasing the Bible), actual descriptions of wordplay do not appear until the rhetorical studies of Cicero and Quintilian. Parts of Platos Cratylus do; however, bear a superficial resemblance to wordplay because Socrates makes fun of etymological argumentation, showing the reader how language can lead to sophistic blind alleys and dead ends, which can be deceptive to those who are not familiar with the well-known schism between the world of ideas and the world of phenomena. Moreover, in Phaedrus, Socrates argues that in the written word there is necessarily much which is not serious (277E) It wasnt written by Socrates, but by Plato. It is this argumentation which Jacques Derrida later criticizes in Platos Pharmacy (1998) the system of citation does not seem to be consistent. Names of books are alternatively written in bold type, without inverted commas, or in normal type, with inverted commas, in which Derrida attempts to demonstrate the erosion of Platos argumentation through the two-sidedness and ambiguity of the word pharmakon and through the way Plato plays on the multiple meanings of this word. Writing is both a remedy and a poison, producing both science and magic. Platos antidote to sophism is episteme, or, in Derridas view, mental or epistemological repression. Derridas text demonstrates an interesting and intimate connection between writing, wordplay, oblivion and memory, but since this is a perspective a bit outside the framework of this article I will carry on a more historical view..  [2]   Over time, wordplay has been linked to the rhetorical terms of traductio and adnominatio. The anonymous Rhetoric to Herennius (Rhetorica ad Herennium), written in the period 86-82 BC and ascribed to Cicero until the fifteenth century, states that [t]ransplacement [traductio] makes it possible for the same word to be frequently reintroduced, not only without offence to good taste, but even so as to render the style more elegant (1954: 279) The work of Derrida was not cited like this. Traductio is classified below figures of diction and is compared to other figures of repetition. Common to these figures is an elegance which the ear can distinguish more easily than words can explain. (1954: 281). Identifying wordplay as traductio, however, may not entirely correspond with the understanding we have of wordplay today, although the lack of explanatory words within this rhetorical figure is comparable to the above-mentioned thesis. Today, we would perhaps rather characterize wordplay as adn ominatio [called paranomasia in the English translation]. The Rhetoric to Herennius states that wordplays should be used in moderation because they reveal the speakers labour and compromise his ethos: Such endeavours, indeed, seem more suitable for a speech of entertainment that for use in an actual cause. Hence the speakers credibility, impressiveness, and seriousness are lessened by crowding these figures together. Furthermore, apart from destroying the speakers authority, such a style gives offence because these figures have grace and elegance, but not impressiveness and beauty. (1954: 309) I have indented this, according to APA norms. Wordplay must therefore be used economically so as not to seem childish or to monopolize the listeners attention. In addition, the author of the Rhetoric points to the fact that one very quickly becomes too clever by half if the frequency of paronomasia is too high. In Quintilians treatise on rhetoric, The Orators Education (Institutio Oratoria), wordplay is reckoned among figures of speech (9.13). Another style of citation. Quintilian divides these into two types, the first of which concerns innovations in language, while the second concerns the arrangement of the words. The first type is, according to Quintilian, more grammatically based, while the latter is more rhetorically based, but with indistinct limits. At the same time, the first one protects the speaker against stereotypical language. Wordplay belongs to what Quintilian refers to as figures which depend on their sound; other figures depend on alteration, addition, subtraction or succession. Quintilian treats wordplay immediately following the chapter on addition and subtraction, thereby suggesting its status as something which neither subtracts nor adds. Otherwise his conception of wordplay is similar to that of the Rhetorica ad Herennium: wordplay should be used with cautiousness and only if it to some extent strengthens a point, in which case it can have a convincing effect.  [3]   What we can learn by reading these passages on wordplay in Quintillian and the Rhetorica ad Herennium is that ever since the beginning of literary studies our understanding of wordplay has oscillated between at least two different extremes: traductio and adnominatio / paranomasia, or, one could say, between an outer understanding concerned with the context and an inner understanding mostly concerned with language itself. This could also be one of the main reasons why literary theory has tended to describe puns and wordplay in two ways: either as magical (iconic) language use or as critical language use. Magical language use has much in common with wordplay as a rhetorical figure, and thus also with the way wordplay was used in antiquity and in the romantic era, between which periods the literature of Shakespeare creates an important link. For instance, it is quite remarkable that at first Shakespeare was admonished for his plays on words. In Germany, the Enlightenment poet and transl ator of Shakespeare, C.M. Wieland citation?, also complains about the wisecracks. He calls them albern (silly) and ekelhaft (disgusting). When A.W. Schlegel citation?, on the other hand, gets hold of Shakespeares texts, he is much more attentive to and respectful of the latters excesses in language. Schlegel is in debt to Herder citation?, who is one of the first in Germany to appreciate the poetry in Shakespeares works (their rhythm, melody and other more formal qualities) (cf. Larson (1989)). We cant carry out this comparison, because the works have not been properly cited. By using the rather odd term magical language, this article aims to carry on colloquial a German tradition of treating wordplay as Sprachmagie. Walter Benjamin, for instance, construes language as magical or self-endorsing citation?.  [4]  Critical language use, however, is more comparable to the use of wordplay and the discussion of wit in the Age of Enlightenment, and thus more generally to humour, including, for instance, the joke and the anecdote (whereas in relation to magical language use, wordplay should be regarded as akin to the riddle, the rebus and the mystery). Much literary theory may therefore have adopted these two ways of dealing with and understanding wordplay: it is treated as exceptionally poetic and almost magical precisely because it is untranslatable, or as something which can be used in a general critique of language in which this untranslatableness is used as an argument for the arbitrariness of the relationship between signifià © and signifiant .citation ?The words were not coined by the author of this paper. Wordplay as part of language criticism The work of the linguist Ferdinand de Saussure citation may be seen as a prism for the two understandings of wordplay throughout the twentieth century. On the one hand, there is the scholar Saussure, who later became famous for his hypothesis of the arbitrary relationship between signifià © and signifiant and for his statement that language only contains differences without positive terms. On the other hand, there is the other Saussure, who, besides his more official scholarship, occupies himself with anagrams in Latin texts (cf. Starobinski 1979). In his private scholarship Saussure considers the sign highly motivated, which stands in contrast to his thesis of the arbitrariness of the sign in his official scholarship. Saussures remarkable occupation with language alternates between an almost desperate confidence in language and a growing distrust of its epistemological value. The discussion in the last part of this article will be based on this distrust, orienting it toward Nietzsc he and Freud, since they represent two of the most predominant views on language and thus wordplay in several important literary theories of the twentieth century, not least Russian Formalism and deconstruction. Franz Fà ¼rst (1979) wrongly cited, according to APA norms mentions that wordplay changes character during the nineteenth century. First, the romantic age idealizes it, changing its characteristics. Wordplay is not only connected to wit, but also to in my free translation from Bernhardis Sprachlehre (1801-1803) citation the eternal consonance of the universe through its heterogeneous homogeneity.  [5]  The coherence between sound and meaning was therefore at first considered deeper than might be expected, but the coherence, as the future would show, also had another side displaying a quite different function of wordplay. Fà ¼rst explains: Aus einer à ¤hnlichen Bemà ¼hung um die Wiederherstellung der engen Wort-Ding-Beziehung, jedoch mit karikaturistischer Absicht, entstand eine neue Technik des Wortspiels, die von Brentano und ihm folgend von Heine und Nietzsche verwendet wurde. Diese Technik verzichtet auf das Urwort und begnà ¼gt sich mit der Wortentstellung, der Karikatur eines ehemals organisch-sinnvollen Wortes zur Bezeichnung einer entstellten Wirklichkeit. (1979: 49) We need a translation of this. In Fà ¼rsts view, from pointing out a deeper coherence, wordplay now stands at the service of a distorted reality. It becomes an example of the play of falseness and designates a disfigured reality, especially concerning epistemological questions. The connection with this deeper coherence is therefore eliminated from language and discarded. For example, wordplay and other rhetorical figures which build upon likeness, like the metaphor, are denigrated in Nietzsches work from 1873, On Truth and Lie in an Extra-Moral Sense citation , when he proclaims that the truth is only [a] mobile army of metaphors, metonyms, and anthropomorphisms in short, a sum of human relations which have been enhanced, transposed, and embellished poetically and rhetorically (1982: 46-47). Martin Stingelin points out that Nietzsches wordplay gewinnt (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) seine reflexive Qualità ¤t gerade durch Entstellung (1988: 348) Translation, citation. Precisely because everything is rhetoric anyway, we must turn the sting of language against itself. In this connection, wordplay is the least convincing example of false resemblances made by language and can therefore participate reflectively and ironically in such an Enstellung (distortion). The failure to convince should indicate, and thereby ironically convince us, that there is something inherently wrong with language and the epistemological cognition it attends to for us. Besides Nietzsches critique, we also find Freuds general distrust of language in the beginning of the twentieth century. Most relevant to wordplay is his work The Joke and Its Relation to the Unconscious. Date, citation.With this as a starting point, it is possible to make some more general remarks about the fundamental importance of the relationship between wordplay and metaphor in the different ways in which wordplay is understood and used in twentieth-century literary theory. Freud believes that play on words is nothing but condensation without substitute-formation; condensation is still the overriding category. A tendency to parsimony predominates in all these techniques. Everything seems to be a matter of economy, as Hamlet says (Thrift, thrift, Horatio!) Speech marks (2003: 32). Freuds interest in wordplay therefore goes by way of the joke, which is primarily characterized by economization and condensation.  [6]  A substitution is omitted; in other words, wordplay is not a translation of something unconscious, but a translation which more precisely takes place in language. This is also one of the definitions that Walter Redfern arrives at (1997: 265). Redferns study of wordplay is without doubt the most comprehensive yet in a literary context, but the many metaphorical classifications for instance, ubiquity, equality, fissiparity, double-talk, intoxication (2000: 4) or bastard, a melting-pot, a hotchpotch, a potlatch, potluck (2000: 217) are char acteristic of the relationship between wordplay and metaphor. Wordplay therefore has to do with something fundamentally poetic in language, or as Roman Jakobson puts it, poetry is precisely characterized by being untranslatable: In poetry, verbal equations become a constructive principle of the text. Syntactic and morphological categories, roots, and affixes, phonemes and their components (distinctive features) in short, any constituents of the verbal code are confronted, juxtaposed, brought into contiguous relation according to the principle of similarity and contrast and carry their own autonomous signification. Phonemic similarity is sensed as semantic relationship. The pun, or to use a more erudite and perhaps more precise term paronomasia, reigns over poetic art, and whether its rule is absolute or limited, poetry by definition is untranslatable. (1987: 434) If wordplay may be characterized as a translation in language, metaphor may be considered a translation with language, and each time this inner translation or untranslatability of a pun or wordplay is translated, words for this translation are lacking. Arguably, this is exactly where metaphor helps, like a Band-Aid for a small wound. For this lack or deficit of words produces a poetic surplus which is precisely able to express itself in metaphors and figurative language in general. The latter is an attempt to explain the translation or translate it to something more comprehensible. Whereas the metaphor gives the sense of an effective blend between two semantic fields which together create a third one, wordplay gives a very different impression. The third place which the wordplay creates in its expression is not intellectually comprehensible, but rather inscribed in the form of its own manifestation, a distinctive blend of sound and sense. The incomprehensibleness is an argument for both of its general understandings, partly according to a view which considers language something which can reveal the nonsense of a truth (language criticism) and partly according to a certain kind of nonsensical truth, the idea that language contains m ore than we are aware of (magical language use). Consequently, it is not so odd that metaphor is useful for describing wordplay: metaphor creates a convergence between several semantic fields by covering up the differences between them and in so doing often makes poetry happen. Wordplay, on the other hand, fixes the difference in the mind, thus maintaining the convergence in its very expression. Take, for instance, the literary example of Shakespeares Sonnet CXXXII: THINE eyes I love, and they, as pitying me, Knowing thy heart torment me with disdain, Have put on black and loving mourners be, Looking with pretty ruth upon my pain. And truly not the morning sun of heaven Better becomes the grey cheeks of the east, Nor that full star that ushers in the even, Doth half that glory to the sober west, As those two mourning eyes become thy face: O! let it then as well beseem thy heart To mourn for me since mourning doth thee grace, And suit thy pity like in every part.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Then will I swear beauty herself is black,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  And all they foul that thy complexion lack. The sonnet is replete with wordplay and puns, especially on the words I and eye, and morning and mourning no inverted commas here?, but also and perhaps less importantly on the words ruth and truth. Appropriately, the sonnet contains two instances of the word I, punningly mirroring the two eyes. But an expression and a metaphor like the grey cheeks of the east would simply not emerge without the existence of the pun between morning and mourning. The poem develops and invents a vocabulary and uses expressions which would simply not exist or appear without the puns and plays on words. It actually manages to connect blackness with beauty because of the pun between mourning and morning which also connects the sun with the full star and in this manner with the night. Hence, everything that the I in the sonnet lays eyes on is polluted by a look of mourning and pity. The connection mentioned above causes most scholars to describe wordplay as a potential metaphor; even Freud (especially read in the perspective of Jacques Lacan citation  [7]  ) indicates that we should understand wordplay this way. However, no one has shown that metaphor is a potential wordplay. The question must be whether the connection goes both ways or if wordplay simply is a more initial metaphor? In any case, following Lakoff and Johnsons now classic theory (1980), it is easy to suspect that so-called dead metaphors can be played on more easily than other words for example, the word leg, which is used in connection with chairs, tables and human beings, or words like root or rose, which function in countless contexts. The ambiguity is most severe in connection with some of the key examples provided by Lakoff and Johnson, such as our value-laden and metaphorical organization of space in up and down, in and out, and so forth. The reason for this is probably not that these e xpressions are metaphorical, but rather that they belong to the trite vocabulary which often activates wordplay makes it alert, as Redfern citation writes. In other words, a revitalizing process in language takes place between wordplay and metaphor. Wordplay is not more original than metaphor, nor is the reverse true, for that matter. Experience has shown that wordplay has a tendency to generate metaphors when we attempt describe what they exactly mean and that dead metaphors have a tendency to generate wordplay. Regarding the latter, the same applies to dead language in general, such as hackneyed proverbs, phrases and clichà ©s. Along with the dead metaphors, these expressions make up an un-sensed language which often activates wordplay. The more remarkable of these two relations is without doubt the first one, which I will therefore focus on. The relation between wordplay and metaphor outlined above corresponds with the one that Maureen Quilligan (1992) identifies between wordplay and allegory. Below, we will examine Quilligans understanding of their connection. Wordplay and allegory Quilligan tries to redefine allegory as a genre in which wordplay plays a central part due to its ambiguousness, or as Quilligan writes, [a] sensitivity to the polysemy in words is the basic component of the genre of allegory (1992: 33). Quilligan sees wordplay as initiating the unfolding of the relationship of the text to itself. The text comments on itself, not discursively, but narratively. In this way an author does the same thing with allegory as the literary critic, but the difference is that the author makes commentary on that is, enacts an allegoresis of his own text, which is due to the fact that language is self-reflexive. But this self-reflexivity is only brought about through the reader, who therefore constantly plays an important role in Quilligans reading and re-evaluation of allegory. Self-reflexivity is, however, potentially inscribed in the text through certain traces, especially through polysemy, which expresses itself on the most fundamental literal level specif ically, in the sounds of the words and it is in this respect that wordplay enters the picture alongside allegory. Quilligan uses Quintilian to differentiate between allegory and allegoresis. Allegoresis is literary interpretation or critique of a text, and it was this concept that Quintilian was referring to when he wrote that allegory means one thing at the linguistic level and another at the semantic level; in other words, as a figure, allegory could retain a separation between several semantic levels for a long time for example, between a literal and a figurative level. However, the other which the word allegory points towards with its allos is not someone floating somewhere above the text, but the possibility of an otherness, a polysemy, says Quilligan, on the page and in the text. The allegory designates the fact that language can mean numerous things at once. This very redefinition causes Quilligan to turn towards wordplay. Besides, Quilligan wants to escape from a vertical understanding of allegory such as it has been inherited from Dante, who organized his Divine Comedy according to the Bible, which he believed had four layers of meaning. Quilligan suggests that allegory works horizontally, so that the meaning is increased serially by connecting the verbal surface before moving to another level for example, beyond or above the literal level. And this other level which she refers to has to be located in the reader, who will gradually become aware of the way he or she creates the meaning of the text. Out of this awareness comes a consciousness, not just of how the text is read, but also of the human response to the narrative. Self-reflexivity occurs, and, finally, out of this a relation is established to the other (allos) towards which the allegory leads its reader through the allegoresis. This sensation of the real meaning can be called sacred. Quilligan aims to grasp allegory in its pure form before it becomes allegoresis. Through her readings, she tries to identify a more undetermined conception of allegory on a linguistic level before it gets determined by and in the reader. Quilligan could have used Quintilians definition of allegory as a continued metaphor (III, 2001, 8:6: 44) to establish a relation between allegory, metaphor and wordplay. In my view she thus misses something essential in the contiguous relationship between wordplay, allegory and allegoresis, and this is the making of metaphors. The relation between wordplay and metaphor constitutes a more intimate bond than that between wordplay and allegory, or, as James Brown puts it: The pun is the first step away from the transparent word, the first step towards the achievement of symbolic metaphor (1956:18). But this does not mean that wordplay is some sort of metaphor, as Brown seems to suggest. More accurately, it would be reasonable to suggest that wordplay gives rise to creative language usage, including metaphors and figurative language use in general. This very use is an attempt to translate the relative untranslatability of wordplay, and thereby to satisfy a natural human desire for understanding. Russian formalism vs. deconstruction By treating the text as described above, Quilligan can read several texts in a new and constructive manner inspired by the way that early literary works such as The Faerie Queene way of writing titles deal with language. But it is principally Quilligans starting point and to a lesser degree her treatment of the text that I aim to pinpoint with my focus on wordplay. This article does not claim that the twentieth century should only be understood in the light of wordplay, but rather that in some periods wordplay was used with very specific intentions, and that it offers an understanding of language which several literary theories benefit from. Wordplay stands out particularly in two twentieth-century literary theories namely, Russian formalism and literary deconstruction in the wake of Jacques Derrida citation but it is used in very different ways in these theories. In Russian formalism, wordplay involves a revitalization of language,  [8]  parallel to the concept of skaz,  [9]  which refers to an illusion of a kind of orality or even realism in literary language. In contrast, in deconstruction, wordplay is often tied to writings influence on language in general to a grammatology, to borrow Derridas term. From a deconstructive perspective, wordplay deals with the inadvertent or unintended in the intended (cf. Gordon C.F. Bearn 1995a: 2), or with absence in presence; the exact opposite is true in Russian formalism, which deals with puns and wordplay as a form of oral presence in writing, likening this to a kind of absence. Here, as in other cases, wordplay is involved in a fundamental shift in perspective between a semiotic deficit and a semantic surplus in what may be called a constructive and deconstructive construction of meaning. An example of this problematic is a book by Howard Felperin citation problems with the symptomatic title Beyond Deconstruction. The Uses and Abuses of Literary Theory. In this book, Felperin differentiates between what he calls the enactment and counter-enactment of wordplay, emphasizing counter-enactment at the expense of enactment: If the figures of enactment, of speaking in effect in Shakespeares phrase, work cumulatively to integrate the jigsaw puzzle of language into concrete replica of the sensory world, the pun is precisely that piece of language which will fit into several positions in the puzzle and thereby confound attempts to reconstruct the puzzle into a map or picture with any unique or privileged reliability or fidelity of reference. Whereas metaphor and onamatopeia attempt to bridge the precipitate fissures between signs and their meaning, paronomasia [or wordplay; Felperin does not make a distinction] effectively destabilizes further whatever conventional stability the relation between sign and meaning may be thought to possess. (1985: 185) (My addition) In Felperins view, wordplay turns our understanding of things upside down in respect to both language in general and certain overall views of life and so forth. This is the reason why wordplay has been disliked for so many years. Felperin analyses Shakespeare and finds that wordplay is at the disposal of language in various ways in Shakespeares work, precisely in the form of a counter-enactment. However, what he seems to forget is that not only does wordplay oppose similarities, but it also conveys likeness for instance, in the wordplay between eye and I, which may underlie a much deeper understanding of the sonnets and of subjectivity in Shakespeares works in general (cf. Fineman 1988). Arguing against the theory of enactment, Felperin criticizes, among other things, Russian formalism as a theory founded on metaphor (which from Felperins deconstructive perspective is the wrong foundation when it comes to an ontology of language): The Russian formalists, for example, like the Elizabethans, see language as aboriginally poetic, and similarly identify its performative potential in the storehouse of metaphor that lies buried within it (1985: 180). Only Shakespeare escapes this sort of criticism, which appears typical of the period and untenable. Metaphor almost seems like a dark, anthropomorphic enemy in such a deconstructive point of view. Furthermore, Felperin of course makes considerable efforts to define wordplay as a matter